Republic:
You have read definitions, explanations, and related topics of the word “republic” many times, but when Afghans hear the name “republic,” they immediately think of the last republican regime built in Afghanistan by the United States and its allies, which claimed sovereignty for over twenty years with the support of world superpowers. In 2001, after the September 11th attacks, the world’s superpowers found a pretext to militarily conquer Afghanistan; in reality, the conquest of Afghanistan was not aimed at eliminating terrorism, but was a false slogan. The main goals were strategic and ambitious.
Due to its strategic location, Afghanistan is considered a sensitive point in Asia. This geography was important for the United States to connect with Asian countries. Additionally, Afghanistan became a priority for the United States and the West for close monitoring of their political rivals and several other goals, which led them to choose the path of military conquest in this geography.
To defend American interests in Afghanistan and keep empty-headed Afghans occupied with the empty slogans of independence, it was important for them to establish a system in Afghanistan, a system that would appear democratic and allow ideas to work on their own for the realization of Western goals.
Isolating the Taliban:
The Islamic Movement of the Taliban, which was a collection of mujahideen who fought against the Russians, madrasa students, and individuals with a clean past, began its movement in 1996 from southwestern Afghanistan under the slogan “Jihad Against Evil and Corruption.” By capturing numerous provinces, this movement emerged as a large entity and the strongest movement in Afghanistan at that time.
The Taliban movement, which, after the complete capture of Kabul, established an exemplary system in the region and the world as the “Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,” gained popularity among Afghans for fulfilling their aspirations of nearly a decade of struggle against the Russians in Afghanistan and for removing the groups of evil and corruption from the dear country at that time.
In 2001, the United States, along with its allies, planned a military invasion of Afghanistan. The Taliban emphasized resolving conflicts thru understanding and diplomatic relations to address the world’s concerns, but the world’s intentions were different. The Northern Alliance had provided their masters with incorrect information about Afghanistan, which completely contradicted the reality of the country.
The Taliban were a reality in Afghanistan at that time, they could not be denied, marginalized, or eliminated; however, after the Bonn Agreement, the Taliban were ignored in the Afghan issue, no one listened to their concerns, and no genuine efforts were made for peace.
The response of foreign invaders, including their puppet administrations, was always with large bombs, the barrel of a gun, and force. This response not only failed to resolve the Afghan issue but also created further opposition, forcing the Taliban to rise up again, as those Taliban who had not taken up arms again were raided and harassed.
They were painted in the colors of the people, and naturally, the people were also victims of this tragedy by the fallen republic. Anyone who was a Talib, a member of the Taliban’s family, dressed or thot like them, or had been seen with them somewhere, was now considered an enemy. This enmity and labeling was a cruel act, essentially increasing popular unrest against the republic and paving the way for opposition.
Since the Taliban was also a movement that first emerged from the people, it included such popular elites, prominent figures, and political figures. They intended to establish an Islamic, stable, and good system in Afghanistan, but they were kept busy with wars against the Northern Coalition. With the arrival of the invaders, they were isolated, so far removed from the scene, and ostracized that even a casual visit was still considered a crime. Marginalizing them was a political mistake made by the leaders of the fallen republic, including foreigners.
Perhaps the Taliban could have negotiated with exiled politicians without bringing in invaders and agreed on the establishment of a system that would have been unprecedented in Afghanistan. However, the exiled politicians prioritized invasion and wanted to completely isolate and remove the Taliban, keeping power in the hands of politicians who would govern Afghanistan according to their own interests.
Bonn, Coalition, and the Sovereignty of the Republic:
The Taliban-formed regime in Afghanistan collapsed, creating a power vacuum. To fill this vacuum with America’s loyal mercenaries, the Americans convened the Bonn Conference under UN auspices in advance. At this one-sided conference, several sold-out leaders of the Northern Alliance signed a disgraceful agreement in the name of representing all of Afghanistan, an agreement that Afghans did not agree with.
In fact, the United Front, also known as the Northern Alliance, was not a good alternative for Afghans as the group to whom power was to be handed over in Afghanistan, because these groups made no effort to prevent the destruction of Afghanistan during the civil wars, they made Afghanistan a laughingstock in the power struggles, and they sold off national assets.
The Coalition and some distorted leaders of the organizations sacrificed Afghanistan for foreign interests, embracing every deal possible that could secure their personal gains. It didn’t matter to them that the black faces were wiped from the pages of history, nor that they became deeply hated in the minds of Afghans for their actions.
The Northern Alliance, which held five percent of Afghanistan’s territory during the Taliban’s rule and had its own president, ministers, and mostly imaginary structures, was therefore accepted by the United States and Western countries as an alternative to the Taliban, but this belief was a complete failure.
The Northern Alliance brought together Afghan politicians who were already unpopular before the Taliban’s rule, and were even in the process of being expelled from Afghanistan and having their belongings gathered as a result of the popular uprising. The people were largely successful in this struggle, which led to the United Front facing complete defeat.
The United Front was composed of a very limited number of figures and individuals. These groups could not easily gain control over all of Afghanistan. Therefore, they also worked to recruit a number of sold-out figures in the country’s south, southwest, east, and other zones. They selected individuals who were opportunists and could easily keep a large portion of Afghanistan’s civilian population calm for a while with deceptive slogans.
As a result of the Bonn Agreement, an interim government was formed, a fraudulent election process was initiated, and several individuals were imposed on millions of Afghans under the guise of elections, along with an exclusive cabinet. The name was ostensibly that of a moderate president, but the real power rested with the Alliance, and the limited circle of this Alliance effectively realized foreign objectives in Afghanistan.
The Coalition created a circle of monopoly in governance; they formed groups, parties, and circles based on ethnicity, region, religions, ideologies, and minor ideologies to gain control over various parts of the government, but at the top were the superpowers led by the United States, and all were supplied from the same source.
The regime in the name of the republic began its failure from its very foundation; the initial mistakes of the regime’s leaders, including foreigners, led to their strategic loss. Initially, the market was booming, and they did not assess the future, profit, and loss of the system to seize power.
Disagreement, Differences, and Lack of Coordination:
The republican regime was initially formed from politicians and recurring figures who were involved in widespread internal wars, power struggles, and conflicts after the jihad against Russia, with hatred, disagreements, and disunity already present among them.
The foreign forces’ occupation of Afghanistan and the creation of a structure called the Republic were a shield against challenges for political leaders and a way to protect personal interests. Politicians attribute different regions and ethnicities to themselves in order to rebuild or reactivate the islands of power they used during the civil wars, and thus reduce the challenges they face to some extent.
Since the affairs of the system were also in the hands of these politicians, the system was divided into islands of power. Ministries, deputy ministries, embassies, and high-ranking positions were distributed among the politicians. Hatred, disagreements, and animosity had already permeated among them over power, which is why disagreements over major positions persisted even during their rule, to the point that sometimes even the first person’s (the president’s) orders were unacceptable to them.
The politicians at the head of the government were embroiled in internal conflicts, and coordination in governance affairs was weak or completely absent. The issues of war in Afghanistan and reconstruction on the other hand were enormous, requiring a great deal of work, intelligent and coordinated management. However, since the politicians, officials, and rulers in Afghanistan who prioritized personal interests were in power, managing the war and the reconstruction of Afghanistan was impossible thru them.
The very politicians and leaders of the republic who ruled over millions of people using government positions were mired in disagreements and lack of coordination, which was also a cause for the republic’s downfall and collapse.
Financial Corruption:
Every corner of the republic was filled with various forms of corruption, and these corruptions slowly devoured the republic like blood, undermining its foundations, weakening its pillars of survival, and bringing it closer to destruction and extinction. First, it is necessary to comment on financial corruption, as this corruption was relatively large compared to others and played a significant role in the republic’s demise.
When the US invaded Afghanistan, money was used extensively alongside weapons to conquer the country. Foreigners brought a flood of dollars to Afghanistan under various names. There was a competition between weapons and money, but money was ahead because it was highly effective in implementing American projects.
American projects were not only implemented on the battlefield but also widely implemented to change the social lives of Afghans. Parties, civil societies, ethnic, sectarian, and other councils, unions, groups, and troupes were formed to change the course of social life. Every few people would prepare a proposal to form a group and get it approved by foreigners for the comprehensive deviation of every aspect of society.
In such a massive flood of money, foreigners, who had been involved in corruption for years under Karzai’s rule, also became entangled. Money was taken from the US and the international community in the name of Afghanistan, but it was unclear where and how this money was being spent within the country! Because America didn’t hold anyone accountable, everyone would take the money and go their own way.
Corruption was institutionalized in the republican regime, its foundation was strengthened, and its roots extended from the top to the bottom. Despite the presence of so many dollars, Afghanistan remained a backward country. The structures of government and the state were filled with those major corrupt individuals who were collecting all the money in personal accounts in the name of the nation, using it for their personal business, and oppressing the oppressed people in every way possible.
Under Karzai’s rule, these warlords grew even larger, their positions became more significant, and their authority increased excessively; the republic deliberately undermined itself, adding a black page to its history every day. Behind every corruption case that was investigated, there was a circle, group, party, or institution at the level of government officials involved.
Financial corruption grew more than anything else in the form of bribes; it started with the illegal processing of documents and extended to procurement processes, large and small contracts, and other major stages. In the lower stages, it reached the armed men standing on the road and the traffic police, as well as lower-ranking officials, teachers, and others who mostly dealt with civilians.
Financial corruption was weakening the institutions of the republican system day by day, because this corruption was out of control, all government officials and state institutions were immersed in it, and eliminating it was impossible for a mercenary regime like the republic, which was run at the behest of others.
According to a report by Transparency International, Afghanistan ranked 165th out of 180 countries in the 2020 Corruption Perceptions Index. The country had reached this point due to the bribery and corruption of the country’s officials. Theft and corruption were so deeply ingrained within the system, like blood in the veins.
Moral Corruption and the Implementation of Western Models:
Just as financial corruption took root and grew in the twenty-year republic, moral corruption also grew very rapidly within the system. The international community imposed figures on the republic who had spent their entire lives outside the country, were influenced by Western culture, thinking, and beliefs, and this segment of women and men within the system easily managed to spread moral corruption.
Moral corruption grew and spread more within the cultural sphere, and poison was also sown within the system in the name of culture and civilization. Various methods were used to spread moral corruption; government officials were also powerless to prevent this corruption because the process was implemented by international organizations under the guise of social equality or women’s rights.
Advertising has a significant impact on shaping the mindset of society’s citizens and audiences. The media was also a way to promote moral corruption and calm public reactions to the increase of this corruption within the system. Media outlets funded by the United States and other countries produced programs that gradually familiarized the general public with immoral acts. When society did not react negatively to seeing moral corruption, then any form of moral corruption implemented within the system would not elicit a negative reaction from the general public.
Foreigners were trying to promote moral corruption thru propaganda on one hand, and on the other hand, they were also creating ease in the principles of the system so that women could easily perform duties in all those areas where there was no need for them, neither religiously nor culturally, in a Muslim society.
The leaders at the head of the republic had forgotten yesterday’s golden era. They were applying Western culture and administrative structures in the name of civilization and refinement to a geography called Afghanistan, where such models had been seen in very few colonial systems before. However, in reality, the application of such Western civilization in the name of women’s rights and equality was unacceptable to the believing and mujahid Afghan people.
In the fallen republic, no official, professor, or scholar paid attention to copying only the technological capabilities, inventions, and self-sufficiency tools from Western civilization and its advanced form. Instead, everyone emphasized copying the cultural and artistic aspects of Western civilization and applying them in Afghanistan. This was also one of the reasons for the failed management of the fallen republic’s leaders.
In recent years, the republic has added departments, directorates, and sections under the name of gender, under the pretext of ensuring women’s rights in government institutions in a Western manner. These directorates were supposed to create equality between men and women in the institutions; that is, the number of women working in an institution should be equal to the number of men.
These fake defenders of women’s rights appointed numerous women to almost every ministry, department, directorate, office, and management position in the final days of their rule. The ultimate and most significant process was the appointment of women as deputy governors. The sexually starved circles of the republic, which revolved around Ashraf Ghani, organized these elections from the National Security Council and the Administrative Affairs Office. All these pro-Western actions, implemented in government institutions under the guise of women’s rights, were essentially aimed at increasing moral corruption, as the ultimate result of such elections and the disproportionate abundance of women in institutions was moral corruption.
Economic Instability, Poverty, and Unemployment:
Afghanistan had been ravaged by decades of war, and when the Taliban took control of most of Afghanistan’s provinces, they had begun reconstruction efforts as much as possible. However, the country’s economy had been severely damaged and was in a weak and fragile state. With the invasion of the United States and its allies, the international community sent billions of dollars to Afghanistan under the slogan of reconstruction, with claims of spending thru institutions, foundations, government, and other agencies. These funds were also sent to Afghanistan to prevent economic recession and manage the economy.
Because Afghanistan was ruled by bloodthirsty, corrupt people who prioritized material gain, instead of managing Afghanistan’s economic crisis with such a massive influx of money, they collected the funds in their personal accounts, increased their wealth with it, and enriched themselves.
Initially, foreigners did not engage in theft during this process, but later, foreigners also became participants in the theft. The United States and the international community sent billions of dollars in aid to Afghanistan to manage the economy, but instead of real economic management, a false image of a constructed economy was created. Nothing was done fundamentally, which is why the economy did not become fundamentally sound either.
After the first decade of the republican regime’s rule, the economy was once again heading downhill and people were becoming unemployed; the republic, which had countless possibilities, saw poverty and unemployment worsen due to the failed management of the economic crisis, and these issues continued to grow by the end of Karzai’s rule. The republican regime sometimes denied the existence of poverty and unemployment, and at other times, made grand promises about implementing large-scale projects to create jobs. They presented a propagandistic image of economic prosperity that was false and had no basis in reality. If job opportunities were available, only a very small portion would reach those who deserved them, because the regime’s structures were imaginary, or most positions would be given to people with connections, and opportunities for poor, needy, and unemployed young people were non-existent.
The exposure of the false aspect of the economy in Afghanistan began precisely after 2014, as in that year the United States announced the reduction of their forces in Afghanistan and handed over the management of the war in Afghanistan to the Kabul-based governing administration. From that year onward, the fighting intensified, and the Taliban broke thru battle lines and made progress.
Economy and war, economy and peace are almost closely related; managing Afghanistan’s war was also entrusted to the republican regime, and foreign forces reduced their support in this area because they felt their defeat, but they supported the republic in the financial sector to prevent further economic stagnation. At this time, under the leadership of the republican system, a power-hungry president, Ashraf Ghani, came to power. On one hand, the warlords were crushing the system, and on the other hand, due to the intensity of the war, the regime was forced to spend funds allocated for humanitarian aid and economic development on the war. This led to the failure of economic management, and ultimately, the people considered the only solution to be the overthrow of this regime due to severe economic instability against the republic, strengthening the opposition front.
The Impurity of the Army and Police; The Corruption and Distrust of the Security Forces:
The invaders and fallen republic claimed to have around three hundred thousand forces and thousands of police in their ranks. To protect its interests in Afghanistan, the United States had spent billions of dollars to create, train, and equip these security forces and units under various names. Corruption within the republican regime had reached its peak, the police and army were non-existent, and their salaries and money ended up in the pockets of senior officials and local commanders, but in reality, there were no hundreds of thousands of soldiers and police. Because of the same corruption in the leadership of the army and police, corruption had also spread to the lower ranks.
Domestic recruits could not have fought on the battlefield without the support of foreign forces because the army and police were somewhat unprofessional, and corruption also presented challenges during the war, as logistical supplies were not delivered on time and were neglected. Beside financial and administrative corruption within the ranks of the army and police, the impurity of their ranks was also a challenge. This challenge had spread from the leaders to the subordinates, and deliberate efforts were being made to keep these ranks impure and to recruit undesirable individuals. For this reason, along with underage boys, those with personal grudges, drug users, and others were being recruited into their ranks.
Numerous corrupt individuals had infiltrated the ranks of the army and police, and in this way, they were fulfilling their own improper needs. Weapons and positions were instruments of force, and they did not shy away from any filth or impurity. Numerous examples were published in the media, including sexual demands from female police officers within the police ranks, underage boys being kept at posts, and numerous other misconduct incidents.
When a regime’s army, police, and security agencies reach the pinnacle of corruption and all forms of corruption become widespread, they can neither fight with morale nor can such corrupt ranks maintain stability and security. They leave the field with little fighting and flee. The Republic also had such an unclean army and police force that when they reached the battlefield and the place of self-preservation, they were unable to defend Kabul city for even a few days with their entire military strength without foreign support, but rather fled the country before the foreigners.
Social Distrust; Public Dissatisfaction and Alienation:
The system’s distrust of the republic has many aspects, but the most important ones revolve around the system’s policies, actions, and failures. In this regard, in addition to the three security agencies, the actions of civilian institutions and the system in general are also included. In the fallen republic, the gap between the people and the government widened significantly after foreign invaders carried out indiscriminate bombings and raids on Afghans’ homes, innocent civilians were arrested and killed without investigation, some innocent prisoners were held in prisons in Chahil, Nawad, Pul-e-Charkhi, Bagram, and even Guantanamo, tortured, and killed.
In addition to numerous mistakes by foreign invaders in the military sector, security agencies affiliated with the republic also made mistakes that gradually made them increasingly unpopular among the people, widening the gap. People in districts and villages were fed up with the mistreatment and harassment by Arbakis, who were directly supported by foreigners under the title of local police, and by the corrupt police and criminal intelligence officers of districts, zones, and battalions in districts and cities.
Posts, districts, command posts, surveillance centers, national security directorates, prisons, and all military locations belonging to the three security agencies had been turned into public torture chambers, innocent civilians were labeled as suspects and disappeared. Neither could anyone ask anyone, nor was the ground prepared for investigation.
The failure of the republican system’s policies and in other areas also led to a disconnect with the people, such as the failure to ensure security, economic sabotage, widespread corruption, poor services, the growth of corrupt individuals within the government structure, and other factors that distanced the people from the system. Ultimately, the people abandoned the system and joined the opposition to the republic.
Evil Elections:
During the fallen republic, individuals were brought to power who had spent most of their lives in foreign exile, were inexperienced, unfamiliar with local culture, and did not understand the language of Afghans. Many high-ranking positions were given to Afghans who had spent a large part of their lives in foreign exile, held passports from foreign countries, and had limited familiarity with Afghanistan’s social and cultural conditions.
For example, Khalid Payenda, who was recently appointed as the Minister of Finance, lived as a refugee in Pakistan from childhood, later completed higher education in the United States, came to Afghanistan in the final days of the Republic, and was entrusted with an important ministry. Similarly, the head of the central bank, Ajmal Ahmadi, the national security advisor, Hamdullah Mohib, and numerous other officials who had multiple passports were given important responsibilities within the framework of the Republic.
The Ashraf Ghani cabinet was composed of highly educated individuals, but they all came from Western societies. Ashraf Ghani formed a limited circle from this composition and handed over the reins of power to them. They were, in his words, advisors and people to finalize matters. This issue led to a disconnect with the general public and mismanagement due to various factors, limiting support for Ashraf Ghani’s administration.
Administrative Division and Retaliatory Politics:
In the middle years of the republic, Ashraf Ghani was surrounded among the various factions of the coalition. After being elected for a second time, Ghani deemed it necessary to advocate for administrative division and revenge politics and gradually implement them. According to Ghani’s policy, government power was centralized. Administrative structures and ministries were placed under the authority of audit commissions and advisory offices, which weakened the independent activities and elections of the ministries.
Since the ministries were divided among warlords, especially Dr. Abdullah, it was necessary to regain control and put pressure on Abdullah Abdullah’s political party. He opened parallel commissions within the institutions, which gradually weakened the government’s credibility and damaged its precise work. The president’s special advisors, the administrative reform commission, the decision-making circle of the palace, and several other commissions held sway over the ministries, with some having relatively more power than the ministers; these parallel powers had fragmented and divided the administration, and one agency would work against another. Administrative instability, uncertainty, and internal competition had reached their peak, leading to the loss of institutional independence, delays in government affairs, and people once again becoming disillusioned with and distancing themselves from the government.
Erosion of Unity Among the People:
The noble people and tribes of Afghanistan were severely scattered and dispersed during the Soviet occupation and subsequent civil wars. Since then, efforts have been made to spread disunity, and the powerful and those with power islands have been its implementers. These strongmen, who were gathered under the shadow of the Republic for twenty years, were systematically working to destroy national unity. Their methods were different; they were increasing divisions among Afghans thru ethnic, regional, religious, linguistic, and other differences, and undermining national unity.
Within the framework of the republic, one group of officials attempted to incite ethnic divisions and identity crises in Afghanistan, while another group created divisions thru the Pashto and Dari issues. Some officials explored regional issues to provoke one region against another. The Sunni and Shia issue was raised so much for the purpose of religious divisions that it created obstacles to the negotiating table. These and many other forms and methods of division were consciously employed by the rulers gathered within the framework of the collapsed republic.
National unity is key to finding a consensual and lasting solution to a country’s major issues, but this key was so tarnished as a result of the conscious and hostile efforts of several rulers of the republic that it was on the verge of disappearing. If the loss or weakening of national unity extended the duration of such rulers’ reigns due to the people’s disunity, conversely, it could also play a significant role in the downfall of such reign. When people are scattered, there is no national unity, and the nation is not united on a common identity, common values, and a common political framework, then without a doubt, feudalism takes its place, the central authority of the state is weakened, and foreign interference becomes easier.
Unequal Application of the Law:
The rule of law is the fundamental basis of governments, but in the collapsed republic, the implementation of the constitution was uneven, which is why the country’s political, economic, and social stability was seriously threatened, and the gap between the nation and the state widened day by day. In Afghanistan, the law should have been equal for all citizens, but in practice, powerful and influential groups were treated differently. Conversely, the rights of ordinary people were often trampled upon, and they were victims of the unequal application of the law. This inequality played a significant role in the injustice and distrust within society.
In the fallen republic, the actions of powerful individuals remained beyond the reach of the law because these individuals shielded themselves from legal accountability thru political, military, or economic power and bypassed legal processes in various ways. This situation exposed corruption, inequality, and government inefficiency, which essentially weakened the foundation of the republic and drove victims of the law into opposition against the government.
The Management Failure of War and Peace, Until the Collapse:
The Taliban had launched continuous military efforts to regain control of Afghanistan for nearly two decades, strengthening their ranks year after year, which simultaneously intensified the fighting. Since 2014, when the United States and its allies reduced their presence in Afghanistan and handed over military operations to Afghan troops, the fighting intensified further. However, the possibility of significant progress was limited because the United States supported the fallen republic financially and provided security forces with weapons and air support. Despite this, the Taliban broke thru the front lines, captured districts and large areas, and in recent years had approached city districts and gates.
One solution to the twenty-year problem in Afghanistan was negotiations, and the main parties to this problem were the Taliban and foreign invaders. The Republic was not considered a party because it did not have independence, all affairs were under foreign control, and the system was run in their direction. However, the Republic was still involved in the details because it fought mostly on the front lines. During the Doha negotiations, the republican system was marginalized. The negotiations were ongoing, but the republican system became increasingly isolated day by day.
On March 1, 2020, an agreement was signed in Doha between foreign invaders and the Taliban. According to this agreement, intra-Afghan negotiations will begin, and foreign forces will completely withdraw from the country. The Kabul administration at that time appointed a large team for inter-Afghan negotiations. This team, like government seats, was divided among party leaders, power brokers, and officials, with everyone taking their share. The negotiation team included individuals who had not played any role in political or military arenas until then, had low political awareness, and were not capable of negotiating.
The rulers in Kabul, especially Ashraf Ghani, his first deputy, and certain special circles, insisted on war instead of peace because peace would narrow the power circle of these rulers, harm their personal interests, isolate them, and halt the business of killing oppressed Afghans in Afghanistan.
Peace was just a slogan on the tongues of these few people, which they would accompany during their campaign speeches, but the reality was something else. They were pleased with such a team for the intra-Afghan negotiations, whose political awareness was low and who could not succeed at the negotiating table with the Taliban, who had played on every field for about three decades, had political insight, and had recently made an important agreement with the Americans.
In the Republic, a few officials, especially Ashraf Ghani, caused the peace process to fail. When the Taliban reached the gates of Kabul, their forces did not advance further until intra-Afghan negotiations were held, talks reached a conclusion, and power was handed over to the new government without chaos However, instead of managing the war and peace simultaneously, Ashraf Ghani fled the country, creating a power vacuum. The Taliban were also forced to take control of Kabul to prevent chaos.
Conclusion:
The republic fell because its foundation was laid from the beginning on foreign interference and without the will of the Afghan people. The administration established under the unilateral agreement of Bonn was created to protect foreign interests, not to represent the will and aspirations of the nation. Leadership disunity, widespread financial and moral corruption, mismanagement of the economy, the impurity and fictitious structures of the army and police, a deep gap between the people and the system, the forceful imposition of Western cultural forms thru foreign policy, and several other issues led to the people’s distrust of the system, the strengthening of the opposition, and the Republic facing challenges. In the final days of the Republic, when foreign support dwindled, the regime was so weak internally that it lacked the strength to resist for even a few days and collapsed quickly.
Note: The articles, essays, and comments published in Hindukush Voice only reflect the views of the authors, and do not necessarily represent the agreement of Hindukush Voice.